The Barberini Family & Pope Urban VIII

In the 17th Century the two main characteristics of having a high

status in society were art and the Catholic Church. One of the few

families in Italy, which had plenty of both characteristics, was the

Barberini family.

The Barberini family descend from a family in Ancona named

Tafini. After trading Ancona for Siena, what was once known as the Tafini

family now became the Barberini family. During the pontificate of Paul V,

Francesco Barberini was in Rome, where he held the offices of prothonotary

apostolic and referendary to both Segnaturas. His nephew, Maffeo

Barberini, took advantage of his uncle's position and rose in the Church

to a position from which he was elected Pope on August 6, 1623. Upon

acquiring this position he took the name Urban VIII, and as Pope he saw to

it that his whole family was given important and lucrative positions in

the Church and government.

Francesco Barberini didn't stay behind under his nephew's power.

He expanded the service of art and literature. Francesco was the founder of

the Barberini library, the richest library after that of the Vatican.

Also, under Francesco's patronage, Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini built the

Palazzo Barberini on the slope of the Quirinal near the Quattro Fontane.

The Barberini family played a leading role in the government of

the Church and the beautifying of Rome in the 17th century. They rebuilt

the churches, constructed the fountains and piazzas. Wherever you would

see the three bees of their coat of arms, was a testimonial of their

public spirit.

Michelle Merced, 1997

Subject: Quadro Riportato

The term _quadro riportato_ refers to an illusion by the painter in which

his works appear to have been painted in different mediums, when in

actuality, they were painted in the same medium. Quadro riportato can be

observed in Annibale Carracci's work in the Farnese Gallery. Carracci

painted numerous paintings throughout this long hallway, including the

ceiling. Carracci gives the illusion that the gallery is a collection of

framed paintings, but when carefully examined, one will discover that all

the frames around the paintings are paint themselves, and that the

pictures are in the same fresco medium. Carracci even painted what appear

to be sculptures framing his paintings. As with other painters, Carracci

was successful at achieving this quadro riportato effect because his

paintings would be observed from afar.

For more information on Quadro Riportato; see The Macmillian Dictionary of

Art.

Truong Pham, 1997

DISCALCED CARMELITES

The order of the Discalced Brothers of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Mount

Carmel sprang from the 16th century reform inaugurated by St. Teresa of

Avila and St. John of the Cross. The Discalced Carmelites had their

origin in Spain but soon spread to Italy, the rest of Europe, and the

missionary lands. This original community comprised only three members:

Joseph of Christ, Anthony of Jesus, and John of the Cross. Under the

sponsorship of Philip II, king of Spain, the Carmelites enjoyed an instant

popularity and new monasteries were rapidly founded. They became known as

the Discalced Carmelites order because of their custom of wearing sandals.

The founder, St. Teresa of Avila, died in 1582. 11 years later Clement

VIII established the Discalced Carmelites as an independent religious

order with their own superior general and administration.

The Discalced Carmelites and their way of life was the subject of many

Baroque artists. For example, Bernini's sculpture of __The Ecstasy of St.

Teresa__ (1645-52), captures her spirituality through dynamic expressions.

For a visual of __The Ecstasy of St. Teresa__ please refer to page 103 of

Margin's book "Baroque" or refer to the Art History 344 website.

Suggestion for Further Reading:

"Discalced Carmelites." The Catholic Encyclopedia. 1983 ed.

Katherine A. Cleve

CHIAROSCURO

The term CHIAROSCURO is Italian for "light and shadow" . Its

actual meaning in the art world is a balanced contrast between light and

dark areas. The technique was introduced in the Renaissance, and created

the illusion of depth and roundness in paintings. Oil lent its self well

by making rich, dark layers that the artist was able to create with it

therefore, the transition from light to shadow was smooth. In sculpture

however, deep cuts were made to create sharp shadows in the work.

A important figure whose work is a fine example of the term in

use is, Caravaggio. His works consist of dark, if not black, backgrounds

and have a light source illuminating the important parts of the scene and

figures almost to pure white while the rest blend into the dark

background. Rembrandt was also a master at this technique as Leonardo.

Although Rembrandt and Leonardo worked with this technique, Caravaggio

helped its spread tremendously. His style was copied by many of his fellow

artists for the intriguing shadows and realistic roundness of his figures,

because of the use of this technique.

Mayer, Ralph. Art Terms and Techniques.

Heidi Evans, 1997

CARDINAL SCIPIONE BORGHESE AND POPE PAUL V

The Borghese family are best known in the world of art history as

enthusiastic patrons of art in early seventeenth century Rome. The

Borghese family commissioned Flemish architect G. Vasanzio of Utrecht to

construct the Villa Borghese in 1613, which is now the home of the

Borghese Gallery. This gallery is unusual in that it contains a

collection that was not disseminated in the eighteenth century, unlike

many Roman family collections were. The Borghese Gallery includes works

by Caravaggio, Raphael, and Titian to name a few. The gallery was

acquired by the Italian government in 1902, and is now a public museum.

Two of the more famous members of the Borghese family, Scipione

and Camillo, were quite avid patrons of the fine arts as well. Cardinal

Scipione Borghese (1576-1633), along with Pope Urban VIII, were

Gianlorenzo Bernini's most important patrons. Bernini sculpted busts of

Scipione and Camillo and created many other works such as APOLLO & DAPHNE,

PLUTO & PERSEPHONE, and DAVID. Guido Reni also painted a ceiling fresco

for Scipione entitled AURORA, which is found in the Palazzo Rospigliosi,

once belonging to the Borghese family.

Camillo Borghese (1522-1621), Cardinal Scipione's uncle, became

Pope in 1605, assuming the name Pope Paul V. Probably one of the most

important events associated with the arts which occured during his

pontificate is the construction of the facade of Saint Peter's, done by

architect Carlo Maderno. Paul V also commissioned artists such as Pietro

Bernini and Guido Reni to decorate his memorial chapel in Santa Maria

Maggiore, begun 1605.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING:

The Bullfinch Guide to Art History. Shearer West, Gen. Ed. Little,

Brown, & Co.; New York, 1996.

The Oxford Companion to Art. Harold Osborne, Gen Ed. Clarendon Press;

Oxford, 1989.

Rebecca Muller, 1997

The Jesuit Order

The sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries are characterized by

the High Renaissance, the discovery of the Americas, the rise in

capitalism, and the Protestant revolt. It was a time of advanced thought

and drastic change in European culture, philosophy, religion, and the

arts. The Roman Catholic Church was in desperate need for adaptation as

the world around was changing. Therefore, the Jesuit Order was

conveniently placed at the papacy's disposal to serve as a defense and

propagation for the teachings of Catholicism.

The Jesuit Order, founded in 1534 by Saint Ignatius of Loyola,

brought a revolution in Catholic thought. The Order was devoted to

missionary and educational reforms. Traveling to foreign lands such as

Asia and the Americas, the Order established Catholic missions in a

militant fashion. Saint Ignatius of Loyola's teachings in the Spiritual

Exercises served as a model for the Jesuit Order. Contrary to the

struggle for perfection in the worldly life of the Renaissance, Loyola

sought to combine the perfection of human aspects with most importantly,

the spiritual world. He believed that man must seek God in a righteous

way, full of zeal and will. Only then by "suffering the Divine" man could

achieve perfection in both spiritual and natural capacities.

In the art world the strict reform party of the

Counter-reformation argued for stronger rigorous principles, less

Renaissance beauty and more religion. Censorship was soon administered;

Michelangelo's _Last Judgment_ was criticized for its lack of Christianity

and various nudes were painted over. The Jesuit Order thought the reforms

too extreme because they blocked the advancement of art. As in life, the

Jesuits felt a need to compromise the demands of religion and the beauty

of the time. The Order welcomed artists and sculptures who mastered a

sensuous beauty and truth in their works, and befriended such artists as

Michelangelo, Rubens, and Van Dyck. Yet Bernini was considered to be the

"most powerful advocate of the Society of Jesus". The artist received

commissions from the Jesuits because he most illustrated their beliefs.

Within his works Bernini achieved a high theatrical quality and a power of

beauty which lured the viewer to the spiritual world. For example, in The

Ecstasy of St. Teresa (1645-1652) Bernini manipulates light, marble

drapery, and expression to show deep surrender to the spiritual pain and

ecstasy of God. The Jesuits believed this would inspire devotion in the

public's hearts.

Many art historians still debate today whether the Jesuit Order

influenced Baroque art or vice versa; but it is clear that both realms

fall in alignment. The use of dramatic paintings, full of emotion

momentarily led viewers astray from the turmoil and routine of everyday

life to explore the world of divinity.

Jessica Hale, 1997

Easel Painting

Easel Painting is defined as a creative painting executed in one

of the standard techniques such as oils, water colors, tempera, gouache,

or pastel, most frequently intended to be hung on a wall. The term

distinguishes this major fine-arts form from other fields of painting such

as mural painting, illustration, and decorative or applied arts. It also

implies an adherence to professional and technical standards of

permanence, or the ability to survive indefinitely when preserved

indoors.1

A structure that supports a canvas to be painted on or an easel to

my knowledge has been around for as long as painting has. It would be

pointless to list Baroque artists who painted on a easel, because they

basically all did with the exception of painters who painted murals,

frescoes, or canvasses too large for an easel. Easel paintings can be

still life, landscape, allegories, and so on. Easel are important to the

artist because they hold the canvas in place and can be adjusted to suit

the artist, making the painting process a little easier. A baroque artist

who worked primarily on easels is Nicolas Poussin. Poussin painted many

commissioned allegories and landscapes on easels. Easel paintings in the

Baroque era are significant to the history of art in that commissioned

paintings were easel paintings except for murals or frescoes.

After an extensive search through the libraries of George Mason,

the sources I found on easel paintings were limited. The information I did

gather was not new to me except for learning about the baroque artists who

worked primarily on easels. Easel painting must be common knowledge

because the sources concerning it are almost nonexistent. In conclusion,

easel paintings appear to have no more meaning than a painting that is

painted upon an easel.

1 Mayer, Ralph. The artists handbook of materials and techniques 3rd

edition. The Viking Press, New York. 1956.

Andrew Gilman, 1997

CARLO / CHARLES BORROMEO

Saint Charles (Carlo) Borromeo (b. 1538-d. 1584) was one of the most

influential figures of the Catholic Counter Reformation, and had a lasting

effect on Italian art and architecture. Born to Count Gilberto Borromeo

and Margherita de Medici, sister of Pope Pius IV, Borromeo was called to

Rome by his uncle and was made a cardinal in 1560. He was instrumental in

the completion of the Council of Trent (1562-63), at which the Catholic

church addressed its badly shaken authority and set forth programs for

house-cleaning and reorganization within its own ranks, all in order to

respond to and combat the Protestant movement. This Catholic

revitalization, promoted by the Council of Trent, indicated that art was

to serve religion, and Catholic artists often chose as their subjects the

most attacked Catholic beliefs, such as the lives of saints.

After being named Archbishop of Milan, Borromeo returned to his

long-neglected diocese. While taking very seriously his responsibility to

his church and his flock, Borromeo guided his diocese into a

reorganization that illuminated his austere piousness and his concern for

the social welfare of his flock. He became very popular due to his work

among the sick and poor during severe famine and the plague. Carlo

Borromeo survived two attempts on his life, and died of a fever at the age

of 46. He was canonized only 26 years after his death, and his image

became a frequent subject of religious painting.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING:

New Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967.

Turner, Jane, ed. Dictionary of Art. New York: Grove, 1996.

Corynne Hill

Pope Alexander VII

Alexander VII, of the Chigi family, was a very significant figure in

seventeenth-century Rome. He was a well-educated gentleman who was

receptive to new ideas. He has been credited with the "rebirth" of

ancient Rome. During his papacy, many improvements were made including:

new constructions, restorations, buildings were finished and decorated,

and streets were widened and straightened. His most significant

contribution was the restoration of the two family chapels founded by his

ancestor: the Chigi chapels in Santa Maria del Popolo and Santa Maria

della Pace. S. Maria del Popolo was designed by Raphael for Agostino

Chigi and was located just inside the gate of Rome. It would be the first

site visited by pilgrims traveling into the city. Caravaggio was

commissioned to paint two scenes depicting the life of Peter and the life

of Paul, which can also be found in this church. When Alexander VII

reclaimed the chapel, he commissioned Bernini to add the marble statues of

Daniel and Habakkuk, which were placed diagonally across from each other.

In 1656, Alexander Vii commissioned Cortona to design the facade for S.

Maria della Pace, which became enormously influential. Bernini as well as

Sir Christopher Wren later imitated the structure.

Two excellent sources for further reading on this topic are: The Rome of

Alexander VII by Krautheimer and The Golden Days of the Renaissance in

Rome by Lanciani.

Jennifer Curless, 1997