The assessment can be multi-faceted. First, the teacher will assess the Venn diagram for completeness. Secondly, the teacher may conference with the student one-on-one, allowing the student an avenue for self-reflection. This is essentially a formative assessment. Additionally, the student may write a response to the images presented in the lesson. And, finally, each student will have the opportunity to creatively convey understanding of the topic via his/her diorama.

Days 1 and 2

• Project two distinct images on an overhead – both circa 1880 – one depicting a settlement or encampment of Native Americans and another depicting European immigrants in their covered wagons heading west along, for example, the Oregon Trail.
• Provide a paper divided into two sections and ask students to write a description of what they see in each of the two images. On the paper, include some guiding questions to include:
  • Whom do you see in each picture?
  • What do you note that is particular about each family?
  • Do these give you a clue as to the culture of the people?
  • What specific items are shown?
  • Do these pictures illustrate any significant differences between the cultures?

  The selected images have been taken from the Denver Public Library’s Western History/Genealogy Dept. Collection at http://photoswest.org. In order to access these photographs, go to the website, then click on search and enter the call number into the search field:

  • Pioneer Family: Call Number is X-11929. The summary of this photograph describes it as “Weary pioneers rest in front of two Conestoga wagons on a plain with mountains in the background. Family includes an adult male, 3 adult females, and 4 children.”
  • Native American Family: Call Number is X33505. Dated between 1880 and 1900, this photograph has this description. “A Native American (Plains) family (men, women, and children) pose near a tepee. The men hold wooden pipes or bows and arrows, they wear blankets and feathers in their hair. The women wear dresses and beaded necklaces.”
• Provide students with blank outline maps of the continental United States and have them carefully illustrate with colored pencils, highlighting the most important geographical features. They will need to refer to a physical map of the United States in the atlas. The teacher will also point out important features on a large contour map.
• Next, address the significance of the landscape in terms of the settlement of human population(s). Make a list of the important geographical features; as the students illustrate their maps, ascertain that they have incorporated them into their maps. Then brainstorm in order to address the aforementioned significance of these features, i.e., how they may have impacted the Native Americans as well as the pioneers on their westward migration.
• Provide K-W-L charts and have students indicate what they may already know about native populations throughout North America.
• Using Venn diagrams, underscore the similarities and differences between the immigrant and native populations.
• Create a concept of definition word map, for example, using the word “expansion” as the focal point.
• Compile a list of vocabulary words from the above and ask students to write their own reflections, incorporating vocabulary, as homework. This will be part of the assessment process. Students will retain the vocabulary list for further reference.

Day Three

• As a warm-up, provide students with a sheet on which there are two images, one depicting a westward-bound wagon train and the other showing bison with Native American hunters. Ask children to write a short dialogue to accompany each picture. How would each picture illustrate a different perspective? What feelings, thoughts, or beliefs might these people have? The images are attached:
  • http://www.everydayspelling.com/grade2/xcurricular/images/205.JPG
  • http://www.tncss.org/clip_image002.jpg
• Next place a list of vocabulary words on an overhead or on the blackboard. Pass out bingo cards and instruct students to note these words on the bingo card, in random order. Then, read an excerpt from Catherine Sager Pringle’s firsthand account entitled Across the Plains. This selection is located at http://www.isu.edu/~trinmich/00.ar.Sager1.html. Suggested reading is from Chapter II, entitled “Waiilatpu Massacre 1847.” Students should listen for and mark the aforementioned vocabulary words. The first person to call “Bingo” wins. After reading, discuss the reading’s significance with the class. Ask students to think about how the Native Americans were affected by the arrival of the Europeans. How might this have caused conflict between the two groups?
• An alternative to the aforementioned bingo activity would be to provide students with a sheet entitled “Visualizing the Sequence” before the reading. Each student would be given the task of writing pictures to represent the material as it is read aloud by the teacher.
• Project a map of North American Indian Cultures Areas. Instruct students to label blank maps of North America accordingly. An excellent source for this map is inserted in the current (September 2004) issue of National Geographic Magazine. Next, project a map of a pioneer route across the western territories that would eventually form a significant part of the United States. Now, have students label another blank map with this information. Ask students to analyze the two and write a description of the “old” and “new” worlds as illustrated on their maps.
• For homework (practice), divide students into two groups. Have students in one group write an imaginary letter from a pioneer child describing his/her experiences to relatives “back” East. The students in group 2 should envision themselves as Indian youth and create “story sticks” (using large craft sticks) to the tribal Chief from their unique perspective. The latter might choose to write in pictograph form, using symbols rather than words.

Day Four

Students will share the letters/story sticks they have created as homework the night before. They will briefly discuss the sentiments that have been expressed.

For the balance of this period, students will work together in pairs or small groups (depending on class size) to make dioramas of the American West of the latter half of the nineteenth century. They will use recycled copy paper boxes, construction paper, craft sticks, felt, pipe cleaners, feathers, glue, modeling clay, etc. to create scenes depicting Indian settlements and the pioneer movement. Elements of the natural landscape as well as the contrast between the two civilizations should be highlighted.

Background music: Mirabal, Robert; Indians Indians (CD); Silver Wave Records; 2003

Day Five

Class will take a prearranged field trip by school bus or by metro to the National Museum of the American Indian that has just opened on the grounds of the National Mall in Washington D.C. The teacher will make a preliminary visit in order to prepare a student guide pertinent to any exhibits that the students will explore. The teacher will also arrange with museum staff, e.g., docents, to assist with this initial visit to the new museum. At the conclusion of their visit, students will fill in a “learning frame” to summarize what they have learned.

Upon their return to school, students may enjoy an afternoon snack representative of the historical era under study. Snacks may include fry bread (recipe attached), cornbread, blue corn chips, jerky strips, dried berries such as raisins, cranberries, or cherries, honey, pumpkin or apple butter, and raspberry iced tea.

• Photographs (described above) downloaded to computer
• Atlases
• Blank maps of the United States
• Dictionaries
• Index cards for vocabulary (may be hole-punched and assembled on a metal ring)
• American Indian artifacts (personal or borrowed) for classroom display
• Narratives
• Graphic organizers: KWL chart, Venn diagram

Books

Brown, H. Douglas; Teaching by Principles; Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.; 2001

While Brown’s book is written primarily for language teachers (the subtitle is “An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy”), he describes many useful activities and forms of assessment that could apply to any classroom. This book is available at the George Mason University bookstore.

Werner, Emmy E.; Pioneer Children on the Journey West; Westview Press; 1995

This is an excellent resource for excerpts from the diaries and the memoirs of children bound for the West. Their appeal will have more relevance for the younger readers. (Page 140 is an example.)

Wexler, Alan; Atlas of Westward Expansion; Facts On File, Inc.; 1995

Quoting from the frontispiece of this atlas, “Manifest Destiny became a rallying cry for the United States’ attempted occupation of the entire North American continent, and at the time served to justify the nation’s appropriation of Native American lands.” This atlas is very comprehensive and contains many illustrative maps and drawings as well as photographs.

Note: Both the Werner and Wexler books are available at the Fairfax County Public Library.

Internet Sites:

http://www.isu.edu/~trinmich/Oregontrail.html
This site is credited with a top 100 edsitement award by the National Endowment for the Humanities. It was created by teachers and features fun facts as well as an archive of diaries.

http://content.lib.washington.edu
This site from the University of Washington has some useful photographs.

http://memory.loc.gov
This comprehensive site features countless photographs of both Native Americans and pioneers.

http://photoswest.org
This site from the Denver Public Library offers a vast number of photographs related to the West. There are many excellent images of Native Americans.

http://www.geocities.com/cott1388/native-words.html
This site provides selected quotations and statements by Native American leaders speaking about the impact of the arrival of the white man.

Additional Texts for Reference:
(available at Fairfax County Public Libraries)

Fisher, Leonard Everett; The Oregon Trail; Holiday House, Inc.; 1990
The Fisher book contains many excellent, large photographs.

Levine, Ellen; …If You Traveled West in a Covered Wagon; Scholastic, Inc.; 1986
For younger readers, this Scholastic Book is organized and simple to read. It tells what it was like to be a pioneer on the westward trek and answers a series of questions a young person might have. It is colorfully illustrated.

Sandler, Martin W.; Pioneers; Harper Collins; 1994
One of the Library of Congress Books, Pioneers features photographs, paintings, maps, diagrams, quotes and lyrics from frontier songs. All of the illustrations and photographs are from the Library of Congress archives.

Stanley, Diane; Roughing It on the Oregon Trail; Joanna Cotler Books; 2000
This colorfully illustrated book depicts life on the Oregon Trail in a humorous fashion, featuring dialogues among characters.

Stefoff, Rebecca; Children of the Westward Trail; The Milbrook Press; 1996
Based on diaries, letters and journals, this story describes the journey West from the child’s perspective. There are some excellent photographs as well.

Van Leeuwen, Jean; Bound for Oregon; Dial Books for Young Readers; 1994

Whitman, Sylvia; Children of the Frontier; Carolrhoda Books, Inc.; 1998
This book, one of the American Past series, features excellent photographs of pioneer children across the West.

One very effective method of differentiation is to have, for example, ESOL students “Sketch to Stretch” whereby they sketch a picture pursuant to the reading of a short selection. In this instance, they could sketch a picture of the narrative that the teacher has read. For example, the words of Shoshone leader Washakie could be used to exemplify the drastic change in the West with the coming of the white man.

Similarly, one might replace the narrative with a rebus that substitutes pictures for some of the words. Students then read the passage aloud, stating the actual vocabulary word in lieu of the picture. Either of these would be effective following the reading of the diary excerpt.